Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals
Immanuel Kant · 1785
"An action is morally right only if it's done from duty according to a principle you could will to become a universal law for everyone — the categorical imperative — consequences are irrelevant; what matters is whether the underlying rule you're acting on treats people as ends in themselves, never merely as means."
Kant's deontology, from the Greek deon, duty, is a direct rejection of consequentialism: an action's moral worth comes entirely from the principle, or maxim, behind it and whether that principle could be universalized, not from how the action turns out. His categorical imperative gives a test: act only according to a maxim you could, at the same time, will to become a universal law — if a rule fails when everyone follows it, like lying to get out of a promise, which collapses the entire concept of promising if universalized, the action is impermissible regardless of the good outcome it might produce in your specific case.
He pairs this with a second formulation of the same imperative: always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in others, as an end in itself, never merely as a means to an end. This is what makes deontology resistant to the classic utilitarian trap of sacrificing one innocent person to save five — using a person purely as an instrument for someone else's benefit is impermissible under this formulation no matter how favorable the resulting math looks, because it violates their status as an end in themselves rather than a tool.
What does Kant's categorical imperative test for?
Read more about the topic
The explanation above is written with AI assistance. These are the originals — go to them to check it.
- Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (full text)Project Gutenberg
- Kant's Moral PhilosophyStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Meditations
"Peace of mind comes from rigorously separating what's in your control — your judgments, intentions, reactions — from what isn't — external events, other people, outcomes, even your own body — and directing all effort at the former while accepting the latter without resistance."